Earlier this year, teachers at my daughter’s preschool expressed interest in having me talk to her class about my work on superheroes. Initially, I was doubtful I could find a topic within my work that preschoolers and their teachers would find relevant. Thankfully, my wife encouraged me to keep thinking, and driving home one day, a candidate emerged. One, I believe, is highlighted in James Gunn’s Superman (2025) and speaks to the essence of what makes the character so popular across generations.
When my wife asked me what I took from Superman, I focused on reciprocity. If there are norms that can reasonably be considered universal (or at least widely cross-cultural), then reciprocity is one such norm. I am most interested in moral reciprocity that occurs in the context of just social relations and a regard for others’ inherent dignity.
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Superman as Servant or Despot?
As humans, we tend to care about social exchange being fair and treating others as we would like to be treated. I imagine this is taught and discussed, in some form, at my daughter’s preschool. One of the things I appreciate about the film is how Superman (David Corenswet) frequently signifies the importance of these aspects of the norm, and how this signification occurs against the backdrop of a message his parents gave him before or during his journey to Earth.
It’s a message in two halves that viewers are encouraged to consider in light of his actions. The first half, which emphasizes serving humanity and making the world better, creates conditions that make living outside the norm as both giver and receiver possible. The same can be said for Superman’s general prohibition against taking life, human and non-human. Regarding others as worth serving and worth inhabiting a better world makes it easier to treat them as you want to be treated.
On the other hand, the second half of the message, which focuses on lording over others and enforcing obedience, precludes such a possibility. It is hard, if not impossible, to see the inherent dignity in others when viewing oneself as morally above them.
Before learning of the second half of the message later in the film, we are only aware of the first, which Superman proudly states defines his superhero mission. Once a metahuman working for Lex Luthor (Nicholas Hoult), The Engineer (María Gabriela de Faría), reconstructs the second part, control, Superman and the world hear it for the first time. Part of what makes Superman popular across generations is how he chooses to embrace the first half, serve, and resist the second half of the film’s message
Whether or not I end up sharing my work at my daughter’s school, thinking about how superheroes signify the reciprocity norm is proving fruitful, and I am currently writing a paper exploring this idea. James Gunn’s Superman is helpful, as many of the scenes illustrate features of the norm that I plan to explore. They deal with the relationship between the sacred and secular, the relationship between individuals and governments, and the potential for new social arrangements.
Superman, the Secular, and the Sacred
In the opening scene, what immediately stands out is his relationship to the sun/sunlight. As exposure quickly heals him from his injuries, I think about the parallels between the sun/sunlight and “dark-light” religious themes in various world traditions and in present-day popular culture. Superman has appealed to secular and religious scholars for years, and I think part of the reason lies in his approach to the reciprocity norm.
The Golden Boy exemplifies the Golden Rule and consistently treats others as he would like to be treated. In doing so, he symbolizes the power of light and hope. Lex Luthor, through his self-professed envy and dogged determination to treat others as means to an end, symbolizes their absence. As he does with others, though, Superman believes that even Lex is worth saving and can change. The resonance of the Golden Rule across time and societies is one way that the reciprocity norm, and its signifier, Superman, combine the secular with the sacred.
Superman, Individuals, and the State
Moments after the opening scene, journalist Lois Lane (Rachel Brosnahan) interviews Superman about his decision to intervene in a conflict between two countries, the more powerful and resourceful Boravia and Jarhanpur. Whereas Superman believes his actions are justified because they resulted in de-escalation, his only motive, Lois presses him on the implications when it comes to national sovereignty and (the threat of) state violence. Implications that surface again later when the countries are again on the brink of war, and children in Jarhanpur hoist up a Superman flag.
This interview, while in line with existing scholarship analyzing superheroes through sovereignty considerations, also alludes to another feature of the reciprocity norm: interrogating the individual-state relationship. What recourse do individuals have when governments do not act in their best interest, or, worse, actively suppress fundamental human rights?
Many superhero comics, series, and films explore governments that (1) “break bad” in this way, (2) are fundamentally corrupt, (3) are incompetent or incapable of protecting their citizens, or (4) are instituted by supervillains. Since superheroes, like states, can act as sovereign powers, they often signify the reciprocity norm through their ability to keep governments honest and, when necessary, hold them accountable.
Superman and New Social Arrangements
Superman, like the reciprocity norm, reminds us of the potential for new social arrangements. A favorite scene involves Metamorpho (Anthony Carrigan), whose ability to replicate Kryptonite enables him to weaken Superman. He initially refuses Superman’s request for help after Lex Luthor takes Superman captive. Yet, once Lex kills an innocent person and Metamorpho chooses not to intervene, he feels guilty and decides to help Superman.
Metamorpho’s decision to finally help Superman leads to new social arrangements in a manner consistent with the reciprocity norm. By treating others how he wants to be treated, not only is he able to get his son back and be a father, but he joins a team of superheroes consisting of Guy Gardner/Green Lantern (Nathan Fillion), Hawkgirl (Isabela Merced), and Mr. Terrific (Edi Gathegi). In effect, his social world is altered.
Superman and the Rest of Us
At its heart, Superman speaks to the power and potential of living out moral reciprocity. Though not perfect, through his actions along interpersonal and international dimensions, he tries to treat others as ends and not means through relating to them in a manner consistent with the Golden Rule. However, as the film also attests, doing so is not without its challenges, as Lois, at times, points out. Nevertheless, he gives people the benefit of the doubt and assumes, unless he learns otherwise, that people can be trusted.
Of course, this is easier when you are a nearly indestructible meta-human. As I have written elsewhere, superheroes’ appeal is not so much in their abilities, but in their function as moral abstractions, reminding us to take the welfare, justice, and human rights of others seriously. One way Superman and others do this is by highlighting the importance of reciprocity in social relations.
Works Cited
Curtis, Neal. Sovereignty and Superheroes. Manchester University Press. December 2015.
Fry, Douglas P. “Reciprocity: The Foundation Stone of Morality”. Handbook of Moral Development: Volume 1 – Theor. eds. Melanie Killen and Judith G. Smetana. Routledge. September 1991.
Helwig, Charles C., Elliot Turiel, and Larry P. Nucci. “The Virtues and Vices of Moral Development Theorists”. Developmental Review. 1996.
Martin, Justin. “Social Superheroes: Interactions, Judgments, and the Superhero Mission”. Transmedia Applications in Literacy Fields. ed. Jason DeHart. IGI Global. July 2024.